Daniel O’Donoghue
The Rise and Fall of the Celtic Tiger and the evolution of an Urban System: 1996–2011 Urban Development Issues, vol. 64, 49–61 DOI: 10.2478/udi-2019-0023
Keywords: Ireland, Celtic Tiger, Urban System, Irish Urban System, Rapid Urban Grow
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ABSTRACT
During the 1990s the Celtic Tiger era began in the Republic of Ireland. This article tracks the response of the Irish Urban System to that remarkable period of growth ended abruptly with the Global Economic Crisis of 2008. Using Small Area Population Statistics from Ireland’s Central Statistics Office for the years 1996, 2002, 2006 and 2011 it was possible to record growth across the towns and cities of Ireland that constituted the Irish Urban System. The location, size, type and rates of change were recorded and mapped with a view towards discovering the extent to which the urban hierarchy and the spatial distribution was being altered, and by what geographical processes. Over 15 years the national population grew by 26% with most of that growth taking place in urban centres. A clear diffusion outwards from the Dublin region is noticeable and the capital’s role in systemic change is explored alongside
other factors. The article highlights the changing nature of growth over time and, based on the empirical observations made, identifies a sequence of clear
stages in the growth of the urban system. The article concludes with a proposal for a Model of Urban System Evolution under conditions of Rapid Economic
Growth based on the distinct phases, or stages, of growth identified in Ireland’s towns and cities from 1996–2011.
During the 1990s the Celtic Tiger era began in the Republic of Ireland. This article tracks the response of the Irish Urban System to that remarkable period of growth ended abruptly with the Global Economic Crisis of 2008. Using Small Area Population Statistics from Ireland’s Central Statistics Office for the years 1996, 2002, 2006 and 2011 it was possible to record growth across the towns and cities of Ireland that constituted the Irish Urban System. The location, size, type and rates of change were recorded and mapped with a view towards discovering the extent to which the urban hierarchy and the spatial distribution was being altered, and by what geographical processes. Over 15 years the national population grew by 26% with most of that growth taking place in urban centres. A clear diffusion outwards from the Dublin region is noticeable and the capital’s role in systemic change is explored alongside
other factors. The article highlights the changing nature of growth over time and, based on the empirical observations made, identifies a sequence of clear
stages in the growth of the urban system. The article concludes with a proposal for a Model of Urban System Evolution under conditions of Rapid Economic
Growth based on the distinct phases, or stages, of growth identified in Ireland’s towns and cities from 1996–2011.
REFERENCES
Aguilar, A.G. & Graizbord, B. (2002) Growth and Maturity of the Mexican Urban System, [in:] W.K.D. Davies & I. Townshend, eds., Monitoring Cities: International Perspectives, International Geographical Union, Calgary.
Bannon, M. (2004) Irish Urbanisation: Trends, Actions and Policy Challenges, Planning and Environmental Policy Research Series (PEP), Department of Planning and Environmental Policy, University College Dublin.
Beluszky, P. (1999) The Hungarian Urban Network at the End of the Second Millennium, Discussion Paper 27, Centre for Regional Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Pecs.
Berry, B.J.L. (1964) Cities as Systems within Systems of Cities, Papers in Regional Science, 13(1), 147–163.
Bourne, L.S. (1975) Urban Systems: Strategies for Regulation, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Bourne, L.S., Brunelle, C., Polèse, M. & Simmons, J. (2011) Growth and Change in the Canadian Urban System, [in:] L.S. Bourne, T. Hutton, R. Shearmur & J. Simmons, eds., Canadian Urban Regions, 43–80, Oxford University Press, Ontario.
Brady Shipman Martin (2000) The Irish Urban System and its Dynamics, National Spatial Strategy Team, Department of the Environment and Local Government, Dublin.
Breathnach, P. (1998) Exploring the ‘Celtic Tiger’ Phenomenon: Causes and Consequences of Ireland’s Economic Miracle, European Urban and Regional Studies, 5(4), 305–316.
Breathnach, P. (2002) Social Polarisation in the Post-Fordist Informational Economy: Ireland in International Context, Irish Journal of Sociology, 11, 3–22.
Bretagnolle, A., Pumain, D. & Rozenblat, C. (1998) Space-time contraction and the dynamics of urban systems, Cybergeo: European Journal of Geography, 61. Available from: http://journals.openedition.org/cybergeo/373 [accessed: 23.11.2019].
Brezzi, M. & Veneri, P. (2015) Assessing Polycentric Urban Systems in the OECD: Country, Regional and Metropolitan Perspectives, European Planning Studies, 23(6), 1128–1145.
Cawley, M.E. (1990) Population in the Republic of Ireland 1971-1986, AREA, 22(1), 67–74.
Cawley, M.E. (1991) Town Population Change 1971-1986: patterns and Distributional Effects, Irish Geography, 24(2), 106–116.
Cawley, M.E. (1996) Town population change in the Republic of Ireland: The need for an urban policy review, Regional Studies, 30(1), 85–89.
Chen, X. (1991) China’s City Hierarchy, Urban Policy and Spatial Development in the 1980s, Urban Studies, 28(3), 341–367.
Convery, F.J., McInerney, D., Sokol, M. & Stafford, P. (2006) Organizing Space in a Dynamic Economy: Insights for Policy from the Irish Experience, Built Environment, 32(2), 172–183.
Coombes, M., Dixon, J., Goddard, J., Openshaw, S. & Taylor, P. (1979) Daily Urban Systems in Britain: From Theory to Practice, Environment and Planning A, 11(5), 565–574.
Counsell, D., Haughton, G., & Allmendinger, P. (2014) Growth Management in Cork through Boom, Bubble and Bust, European Planning Studies, 22(1), 46–63.
Crotty, R. (1969) Regional Planning for Ireland: The Buchanan Report, Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, 58(231), 225–239.
Curtin, D., Geary, R.C., Grimes, T.A. & Menton, B. (1976) Population Growth and other statistics of middle-sized Irish towns, Economic and Social Research Institute Paper, 85, ESRI, Dublin.
Davies, W.K.D. & Donoghue, D. (1993) Economic Diversification and Group Stability in an urban system: the case of Canada 1951–1986, Urban Studies, 30(7), 1165–1186.
Davies, W.K.D. & Kim, J-S. (2002) The Differentiation of South Korea’s Urban System, [in:] W.K.D. Davies & I. Townshend, eds., Monitoring Cities: International Perspectives, International Geographical Union, Calgary.
Davoudi, S. & Wishardt, M. (2005) The Polycentric Turn in the Irish Spatial Strategy, Built Environment, 31(2), 122–132.
Dimou, M. & Schaffar, A. (2009) Urban Hierarchies and City Growth in the Balkans, Urban Studies, 46(13), 2891–2906.
Geyer, H. (1996) Expanding the Theoretical Foundation for the Concept of Differential Urbanization, Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 87(1), 157–177.
Geyer, H. & Kontuly, T. (1995) A Theoretical Foundation for the Concept of Differential Urbanization, International Regional Science Review, 15(2), 157–177.
Geyer, H.S & Kontuly, T. (2008) Historical Perspectives on Differential Urbanization, [in:] G. Pomeroy, G. Webster, eds., Global Perspectives on Urbanization, 1–24, University Press of America, Lanham, Maryland.
Gkartzios, M. & Scott, M. (2010) Countering counter-urbanisation: Spatial planning challenges in a dispersed city-region, the Greater Dublin Area, Town Planning Review, 81(1), 23–52.
Grimes, S. (2006) Ireland’s Emergence as a Centre for Internationally Traded Services, Regional Studies, 40(9), 1041–1054.
Grist, B. (2015) The Irish National Spatial Strategy, [in:] G-J. Knapp, Z. Nedović-Budić, A. Carbonell, eds., Planning for States and Nation-States in the U.S. and Europe, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Massachussetts.
Hall, P. (1993) Forces Shaping Urban Europe, Urban Studies, 30(6), 883–898.
Hall, P. & Hay, D. (1980) Growth Centres in the European Urban System, London, Heinemann.
Heidenreich, M. (1998) The Changing Systems of European Cities and Regions, European Planning Studies, 6(3), 315–332.
Horner A. (2000) Geographical Regions in Ireland – Reflections at the Millennium, Irish Geography, 33(2), 134–165.
Horner, A. & Daultrey, S. (1980) Recent Population Changes in the Republic of Ireland, Area, 12(2), 129–135.
Hourihan, K. (1983) Population Redistribution in Irish Cities: Dublin, Cork and Limerick, Irish Geography 16, 113–120.
Hourihan, K. (1992) Population Change in Irish Cities, 1981-86: County Boroughs, Suburbs and Daily Urban Systems, Irish Geography, 25(2), 160–168.
Huff, D.L. & Lutz, J.M. (1979) Ireland’s Urban System, Economic Geography, 55(3), 196–212.
Huff, D.L. & Lutz, J.M. (1995) Change and Continuity in the Irish urban System 1966-1981, Urban Studies, 32(1), 155–173.
Johnston, R.J. (1969) Population change in an urban system – the examples of the Republic of Ireland and Scotland, Scottish Geographical Magazine, 85(2) 132–140.
Johnston, R.J. (1971) On the progression from primacy to rank-size in an urban system: the deviant case of New Zealand, Area, 3(3), 180–184.
Kirby, P. (2002) The Celtic Tiger in Distress: Growth with Inequality in Ireland, Palgrave, Basingstoke.
Kitchin, R., O’Callaghan, C. & Gleeson, J. (2014) The new ruins of Ireland? Unfinished Estates in the Post Celtic Tiger Era, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 38(3), 1069–1080.
Kontuly, T. (1992) National –Regional and Urban Scale population deconcentration in West Germany, Landscape and Urban Planning, 22(2), 219–228.
Lever, W.F. (1993) Competition within the European Urban System, Urban Studies, 30(6), 935–948.
Lutz, J.M. (2001) Determinants of Population Growth in Urban Centres in the Republic of Ireland, Urban Studies, 38(8), 1329–1340.
Marshall, J. U. (1989) The Structure of Urban Systems, University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
McCafferty, D., Van Egaraat, C., Gleeson, J. & Bartley, B. (2013) Urban specialisation, complementarity and spatial development strategies on the island of Ireland, Administration, 60(3), 115–140.
McDonald, F., 27.07.2002, Dublin now the ultimate ‘boom’ town as it explodes over Leinster, The Irish Times.
Available from: https://www.irishtimes.com/news/dublin-now-the-ultimate-boom-town-as-it-explodes-over-leinster-1.1090037 [accessed: 15.06.2013].
McManus, R. & Brady, J. (1994) Recent Trends in the Irish Urban System with Particular Reference to Dublin and Cork, Acta Universitatis Carolinae 1994 Geographica, 1, 31–46.
Meredith, D. & Van Egaraat, C. (2013) Revisiting the National Spatial Strategy ten years on, Administration, 60(3), 3–9.
Murphy, A. (2000) The ‘Celtic Tiger’ – An Analysis of Ireland’s Economic Growth Performance, EUI Working Papers, RSC 2000/16.
Murphy, E. (2009) Excess commuting and modal choice, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 43(8), 735–743.
O’Donoghue, D. & Townshend, I. (2005) The Diversification, Specialisation, Convergence and Divergence of Sectoral Employment Structures in the British Urban System, 1991-2001, International Journal of Regional Studies, 39(5), 585–601.
Polèse, M. & Denis-Jacob, J. (2010) Changes at the Top: A Cross-country Examination over the 20th Century of the Rise (and Fall) in Rank of the Top Cities in National Urban Hierarchies, Urban Studies, 47 (9), 1843–1860.
Polèse, M. (2005) Cities and National Economic Growth: A Reappraisal, Urban Studies, 42(8), 1429–1451.
Pred, A. (1977) City-Systems in Advanced Economies, Anchor Press, Essex.
Pumain, D. (1997) City Size Distributions and Metropolisation, GeoJournal, 43(4), 307–314.
Robinson, J. (2015) Comparative Urbanism: New Geographies and Cultures of Theorizing the Urban, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 40(1), 187–199.
Schwanen, T., Dieleman, F. & Dijst, M. (2001) Travel Behaviour in Dutch monocentric and polycentric urban systems, Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3), 173–186.
Simmons, J., Kamikihara, S., Bourne, L. & Escamilla, I. (2006) The North American Urban System: The Limits to Continental Integration, Research Paper 205, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, University of Toronto.
Sokol, M. (2011) Economic Geographies of Globalisation: A Short Introduction, Elgar, Cheltenham.
Sokol, M., Van Egaraat, C., & Williams, B. (2008) Revisiting the ‘Informational City’: Space of Flows, Polycentricity and the Geography of Knowledge-Intensive Business Services in the Emerging Global City-Region of Dublin, Regional Studies, 42(8), 1133–1146.
Sweeney, P. (1998) The Celtic Tiger: Ireland’s Economic Miracle Explained, Oak Tree Press, Dublin.
Van der Laan, L. (1998) Changing Urban Systems: An Empirical Analysis at Two Spatial Levels, Regional Studies, 32(3), 235–247.
Walsh, J. (1997) Regional Development Challenges, [in:] D. McCaffery & J. Walsh, eds., Competitiveness, Innovation and Regional Development in Ireland, Regional Studies Association Irish Branch, Dublin, 113–131.
Warneryd, O. (2002) New trends in the Swedish Urban System, [in:] W.K.D. Davies & I. Townshend, eds., Monitoring Cities: International Perspectives, International Geographical Union, Calgary.
Williams, B. & Shiels, P. (2000) Acceleration into sprawl: causes and potential policy responses, Quarterly economic commentary, Economic and Social Research Institute, Dublin.
Internet sources
Central Statistics Office site: https://www.cso.ie/en/census/interactivetables/ [accessed: 15.06.2013].
Aguilar, A.G. & Graizbord, B. (2002) Growth and Maturity of the Mexican Urban System, [in:] W.K.D. Davies & I. Townshend, eds., Monitoring Cities: International Perspectives, International Geographical Union, Calgary.
Bannon, M. (2004) Irish Urbanisation: Trends, Actions and Policy Challenges, Planning and Environmental Policy Research Series (PEP), Department of Planning and Environmental Policy, University College Dublin.
Beluszky, P. (1999) The Hungarian Urban Network at the End of the Second Millennium, Discussion Paper 27, Centre for Regional Studies of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Pecs.
Berry, B.J.L. (1964) Cities as Systems within Systems of Cities, Papers in Regional Science, 13(1), 147–163.
Bourne, L.S. (1975) Urban Systems: Strategies for Regulation, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
Bourne, L.S., Brunelle, C., Polèse, M. & Simmons, J. (2011) Growth and Change in the Canadian Urban System, [in:] L.S. Bourne, T. Hutton, R. Shearmur & J. Simmons, eds., Canadian Urban Regions, 43–80, Oxford University Press, Ontario.
Brady Shipman Martin (2000) The Irish Urban System and its Dynamics, National Spatial Strategy Team, Department of the Environment and Local Government, Dublin.
Breathnach, P. (1998) Exploring the ‘Celtic Tiger’ Phenomenon: Causes and Consequences of Ireland’s Economic Miracle, European Urban and Regional Studies, 5(4), 305–316.
Breathnach, P. (2002) Social Polarisation in the Post-Fordist Informational Economy: Ireland in International Context, Irish Journal of Sociology, 11, 3–22.
Bretagnolle, A., Pumain, D. & Rozenblat, C. (1998) Space-time contraction and the dynamics of urban systems, Cybergeo: European Journal of Geography, 61. Available from: http://journals.openedition.org/cybergeo/373 [accessed: 23.11.2019].
Brezzi, M. & Veneri, P. (2015) Assessing Polycentric Urban Systems in the OECD: Country, Regional and Metropolitan Perspectives, European Planning Studies, 23(6), 1128–1145.
Cawley, M.E. (1990) Population in the Republic of Ireland 1971-1986, AREA, 22(1), 67–74.
Cawley, M.E. (1991) Town Population Change 1971-1986: patterns and Distributional Effects, Irish Geography, 24(2), 106–116.
Cawley, M.E. (1996) Town population change in the Republic of Ireland: The need for an urban policy review, Regional Studies, 30(1), 85–89.
Chen, X. (1991) China’s City Hierarchy, Urban Policy and Spatial Development in the 1980s, Urban Studies, 28(3), 341–367.
Convery, F.J., McInerney, D., Sokol, M. & Stafford, P. (2006) Organizing Space in a Dynamic Economy: Insights for Policy from the Irish Experience, Built Environment, 32(2), 172–183.
Coombes, M., Dixon, J., Goddard, J., Openshaw, S. & Taylor, P. (1979) Daily Urban Systems in Britain: From Theory to Practice, Environment and Planning A, 11(5), 565–574.
Counsell, D., Haughton, G., & Allmendinger, P. (2014) Growth Management in Cork through Boom, Bubble and Bust, European Planning Studies, 22(1), 46–63.
Crotty, R. (1969) Regional Planning for Ireland: The Buchanan Report, Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, 58(231), 225–239.
Curtin, D., Geary, R.C., Grimes, T.A. & Menton, B. (1976) Population Growth and other statistics of middle-sized Irish towns, Economic and Social Research Institute Paper, 85, ESRI, Dublin.
Davies, W.K.D. & Donoghue, D. (1993) Economic Diversification and Group Stability in an urban system: the case of Canada 1951–1986, Urban Studies, 30(7), 1165–1186.
Davies, W.K.D. & Kim, J-S. (2002) The Differentiation of South Korea’s Urban System, [in:] W.K.D. Davies & I. Townshend, eds., Monitoring Cities: International Perspectives, International Geographical Union, Calgary.
Davoudi, S. & Wishardt, M. (2005) The Polycentric Turn in the Irish Spatial Strategy, Built Environment, 31(2), 122–132.
Dimou, M. & Schaffar, A. (2009) Urban Hierarchies and City Growth in the Balkans, Urban Studies, 46(13), 2891–2906.
Geyer, H. (1996) Expanding the Theoretical Foundation for the Concept of Differential Urbanization, Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 87(1), 157–177.
Geyer, H. & Kontuly, T. (1995) A Theoretical Foundation for the Concept of Differential Urbanization, International Regional Science Review, 15(2), 157–177.
Geyer, H.S & Kontuly, T. (2008) Historical Perspectives on Differential Urbanization, [in:] G. Pomeroy, G. Webster, eds., Global Perspectives on Urbanization, 1–24, University Press of America, Lanham, Maryland.
Gkartzios, M. & Scott, M. (2010) Countering counter-urbanisation: Spatial planning challenges in a dispersed city-region, the Greater Dublin Area, Town Planning Review, 81(1), 23–52.
Grimes, S. (2006) Ireland’s Emergence as a Centre for Internationally Traded Services, Regional Studies, 40(9), 1041–1054.
Grist, B. (2015) The Irish National Spatial Strategy, [in:] G-J. Knapp, Z. Nedović-Budić, A. Carbonell, eds., Planning for States and Nation-States in the U.S. and Europe, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, Massachussetts.
Hall, P. (1993) Forces Shaping Urban Europe, Urban Studies, 30(6), 883–898.
Hall, P. & Hay, D. (1980) Growth Centres in the European Urban System, London, Heinemann.
Heidenreich, M. (1998) The Changing Systems of European Cities and Regions, European Planning Studies, 6(3), 315–332.
Horner A. (2000) Geographical Regions in Ireland – Reflections at the Millennium, Irish Geography, 33(2), 134–165.
Horner, A. & Daultrey, S. (1980) Recent Population Changes in the Republic of Ireland, Area, 12(2), 129–135.
Hourihan, K. (1983) Population Redistribution in Irish Cities: Dublin, Cork and Limerick, Irish Geography 16, 113–120.
Hourihan, K. (1992) Population Change in Irish Cities, 1981-86: County Boroughs, Suburbs and Daily Urban Systems, Irish Geography, 25(2), 160–168.
Huff, D.L. & Lutz, J.M. (1979) Ireland’s Urban System, Economic Geography, 55(3), 196–212.
Huff, D.L. & Lutz, J.M. (1995) Change and Continuity in the Irish urban System 1966-1981, Urban Studies, 32(1), 155–173.
Johnston, R.J. (1969) Population change in an urban system – the examples of the Republic of Ireland and Scotland, Scottish Geographical Magazine, 85(2) 132–140.
Johnston, R.J. (1971) On the progression from primacy to rank-size in an urban system: the deviant case of New Zealand, Area, 3(3), 180–184.
Kirby, P. (2002) The Celtic Tiger in Distress: Growth with Inequality in Ireland, Palgrave, Basingstoke.
Kitchin, R., O’Callaghan, C. & Gleeson, J. (2014) The new ruins of Ireland? Unfinished Estates in the Post Celtic Tiger Era, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 38(3), 1069–1080.
Kontuly, T. (1992) National –Regional and Urban Scale population deconcentration in West Germany, Landscape and Urban Planning, 22(2), 219–228.
Lever, W.F. (1993) Competition within the European Urban System, Urban Studies, 30(6), 935–948.
Lutz, J.M. (2001) Determinants of Population Growth in Urban Centres in the Republic of Ireland, Urban Studies, 38(8), 1329–1340.
Marshall, J. U. (1989) The Structure of Urban Systems, University of Toronto Press, Toronto.
McCafferty, D., Van Egaraat, C., Gleeson, J. & Bartley, B. (2013) Urban specialisation, complementarity and spatial development strategies on the island of Ireland, Administration, 60(3), 115–140.
McDonald, F., 27.07.2002, Dublin now the ultimate ‘boom’ town as it explodes over Leinster, The Irish Times.
Available from: https://www.irishtimes.com/news/dublin-now-the-ultimate-boom-town-as-it-explodes-over-leinster-1.1090037 [accessed: 15.06.2013].
McManus, R. & Brady, J. (1994) Recent Trends in the Irish Urban System with Particular Reference to Dublin and Cork, Acta Universitatis Carolinae 1994 Geographica, 1, 31–46.
Meredith, D. & Van Egaraat, C. (2013) Revisiting the National Spatial Strategy ten years on, Administration, 60(3), 3–9.
Murphy, A. (2000) The ‘Celtic Tiger’ – An Analysis of Ireland’s Economic Growth Performance, EUI Working Papers, RSC 2000/16.
Murphy, E. (2009) Excess commuting and modal choice, Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 43(8), 735–743.
O’Donoghue, D. & Townshend, I. (2005) The Diversification, Specialisation, Convergence and Divergence of Sectoral Employment Structures in the British Urban System, 1991-2001, International Journal of Regional Studies, 39(5), 585–601.
Polèse, M. & Denis-Jacob, J. (2010) Changes at the Top: A Cross-country Examination over the 20th Century of the Rise (and Fall) in Rank of the Top Cities in National Urban Hierarchies, Urban Studies, 47 (9), 1843–1860.
Polèse, M. (2005) Cities and National Economic Growth: A Reappraisal, Urban Studies, 42(8), 1429–1451.
Pred, A. (1977) City-Systems in Advanced Economies, Anchor Press, Essex.
Pumain, D. (1997) City Size Distributions and Metropolisation, GeoJournal, 43(4), 307–314.
Robinson, J. (2015) Comparative Urbanism: New Geographies and Cultures of Theorizing the Urban, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 40(1), 187–199.
Schwanen, T., Dieleman, F. & Dijst, M. (2001) Travel Behaviour in Dutch monocentric and polycentric urban systems, Journal of Transport Geography, 9(3), 173–186.
Simmons, J., Kamikihara, S., Bourne, L. & Escamilla, I. (2006) The North American Urban System: The Limits to Continental Integration, Research Paper 205, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, University of Toronto.
Sokol, M. (2011) Economic Geographies of Globalisation: A Short Introduction, Elgar, Cheltenham.
Sokol, M., Van Egaraat, C., & Williams, B. (2008) Revisiting the ‘Informational City’: Space of Flows, Polycentricity and the Geography of Knowledge-Intensive Business Services in the Emerging Global City-Region of Dublin, Regional Studies, 42(8), 1133–1146.
Sweeney, P. (1998) The Celtic Tiger: Ireland’s Economic Miracle Explained, Oak Tree Press, Dublin.
Van der Laan, L. (1998) Changing Urban Systems: An Empirical Analysis at Two Spatial Levels, Regional Studies, 32(3), 235–247.
Walsh, J. (1997) Regional Development Challenges, [in:] D. McCaffery & J. Walsh, eds., Competitiveness, Innovation and Regional Development in Ireland, Regional Studies Association Irish Branch, Dublin, 113–131.
Warneryd, O. (2002) New trends in the Swedish Urban System, [in:] W.K.D. Davies & I. Townshend, eds., Monitoring Cities: International Perspectives, International Geographical Union, Calgary.
Williams, B. & Shiels, P. (2000) Acceleration into sprawl: causes and potential policy responses, Quarterly economic commentary, Economic and Social Research Institute, Dublin.
Internet sources
Central Statistics Office site: https://www.cso.ie/en/census/interactivetables/ [accessed: 15.06.2013].